NANOCARREADORES À BASE DE SÍLICA MESOPOROSA E BIOAPLICAÇÕES: UMA VISÃO GERAL
REGISTRO DOI: 10.69849/revistaft/cl10202508131436
Wilson Rodrigues BRAZ1,2
Liziane Marçal da SILVA1
Caroline Borges de AZEVEDO1
Michelle SALTARELLI1
Arthur Barcelos RIBEIRO1
Denise Crispim Tavares BARBOSA1
Eduardo Ferreira MOLINA1
Emerson Henrique de FARIA1
Katia Jorge CIUFFI1
Lucas Alonso ROCHA1
Eduardo José NASSAR1
1. Introduction
Nanotechnology has as its starting point the intentional manipulation of matter, obtaining materials where in at least one of the dimensions (length, height and/or width) are in the nanometric scale (1 to 100 nm) with industrial applications or in health sciences (PARAMO et al., 2020).
The great interest in this science lies in the novel or optimized properties of optimized properties of nanometric materials compared to conventional materials (DIMER et al., 2013; OWENS et al., 2016) such as the greater surface area and the greater possibility of biointeractions (GATOO et al., 2014; ISHIKAWA et al., 2020). Based on the physicochemical properties it is possible to obtain a modified surface (functionalization), the direction of release (targeting) or uptake (FREITAS et al., 2016; SHEVTSOV et al., 2016; VIVEK et al., 2017; BARKAT et al., 2019; THI et al., 2019). In addition, the presence of organized pores with controlled volumes (ARAYNE et al., 2006; OWENS et al., 2016; KAASALAINEN et al., 2017) favors the adsorptive capacity (BUSHRA et al., 2017; WEI et al., 2018) as well as the coating of the surface (core-shell), enabling greater hydrophilicity, bioavailability and protection against the immune system (CHATTERJEE et al., 2014; NOMOEV et al., 2015).
In addition to the relevant applications, nanotechnology intrinsically brings with it challenges related to regulatory issues, industrial scale-up, occupational health, future toxicity health, future toxicity assessment and safety in relation to human, animal and environmental health (HELMUS et al., 2007; DIMER et al., 2013; MARCHANT et al., 2014).In algebraic relations, it is considered that 1 nm corresponds to 1.10-9 m and the illustration presented in Figure 01 allows us to playfully evaluate the correlation between the nanoscale and the macroscopic scale (GOULART et al., 2017).
Figure 01. Nanoscale and correlation with macroscale. Created with BioRender.com.
The main strategies for nanomaterial syntheses can be physical (top down – from the macro scale) and chemical (botton up – from the macro scale) (BISWAS et al., 2012; ZHANG et al., 2013). The Sol-Gel process stands out among the botton up strategies described in the literature in comparison to other techniques such as Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) (KUZMINYKHAS et al., 2013) and Molecular Beam Epitaxy (BEM) (OKAZAKI, 2015).
The Sol-Gel process allows in a few steps (simplicity) and at low temperatures low temperatures to obtain homogeneous materials, porous, low density, parameter control density, obtain parameter control, purity and with the lowest energy cost (KLEIN et al., 1991; VARSHNEY et al., 2015) and as disadvantages there are some routes that can generate residual solvents (impact on sustainability), reproducibility for industrial scale and gel contraction with the formation of cracks in the heat treatment (BENVENUTTI et al., 2009).The Figure 02 presents, in a simplified way, the steps for obtaining of nanomaterials by Sol-Gel process, using the template methodology (ROCHA, 2010; SUN, 2012) applied to research by Sol-Gel methodology, such as the works published by Oliveira et al. (2018); Braz et al. (2016) and Santos Filho et al. (2021).
Figure 02. Porous nanomaterials obtained by the Sol-Gel methodology. (A/B) – The mechanism occurs by the liquid crystal targeting where the surfactant (neutral, ionic or copolymers) will be the templates through micellar and tubular organization and addition of the silica precursor. (C) – Subsequently, drying and elimination of the surfactant occurs obtaining the mesoporous material. The route with basic catalyst will form MCM-41 and the route with acid catalyst will form SBA-15 or Kit-6. Created with BioRender.com.
The first stage represented by the Sol phase and shown as solution (A) contains the precursors, chlorides or alkoxides, and pore-directors (surfactants or copolymers) that form micelles when required for pore formation. pore formation. Subsequently, presented in step (B) the activation of the precursors by hydrolysis reactions and sequentially polycondensations. A use of an alkaline catalyst will lead to the formation of MCM-41 and an acidic acid catalyst will lead to the formation of SBA-15 or Kit-6, as examples. In (C) then the increase in viscosity is observed as a product of the transformation of the Sol phase to Gel phase due to the three-dimensional network that is formed. The stage of aging (resting of the Gel phase) and drying, represented by (D) and later the heat treatment (calcination) for elimination of the pore-directing pore director, presented in step (E) (ALVES, 2005; DEBECKER, 2018).
Based on the obtaining of nanomaterials using Sol-Gel process and applications, some references in the literature are: Fan et al. (2011) present the synthesis of HSS-X silica nanocapsules with spherical morphology and controlled mesopores; Ishikawa et al. (2020) and with a literature review of works related to the synthesis of related to the synthesis of nanoparticles with calcium phosphates (hydroxyapatite derivatives); Harraz et al. (2013) with the synthesis of titanium-silicon titanium-silica nanoparticles for photocatalytic applications and adsorption of potentially toxic metals; Vallet-Regí et al. (2001) as pioneers in the synthesis of MCM-41 and bioapplications for drug delivery; Rocha et al. (2015) with the synthesis of mesoporous materials by aerosol pyrolysis for drug delivery applications; Nassar et al. (2020) report the synthesis of nanomaterial for diagnostic imaging; Ayad et al. (2016) performed the synthesis of mesoporous silica Kit-6 functionalized with APTES for loading the drugs ketoprofen (anti-inflammatory) and 5-fluorouracil (chemotherapeutic) and Agliullin et al. (2018) with the synthesis of aluminosilicates applied to biofuel processing of biofuels.
In this overview, we present an overview of the use of mesoporous silica (MSN) as nanocarriers in bioapplications.
2. Silica-based mesoporous materials: synthesis
2.1 MCM-41
The mesoporous silica Mobil Composition of Matter No. 41 (MCM-41) is the most studied among the MS41 family members in particular, as a nanocarrier for drugs. It presents an organized hexagonal structure with the volume of the pores between 2 and 15 nm. It follows a route with alkaline catalyst (NH4OH or NaOH), pore directing agent (CTAB – Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) and a silica precursor (TEOS – tetraorthosilicate) with the ratio 525(H2O):69(NH4OH):0,125(CTAB):1(TEOS) (BECK, 1992; VALLET-REGÍ et al., 2001; VALLET-REGÍ et al., 2004; COSTA et al., 2009; MARTINEZ-EDO et al., 2018).
2.2 SBA-15
Like MCM-41, the synthesis of Santa Barbara Amorphous 15 (SBA-15), occurs by template synthesis, also obtaining a hexagonal structure organized structure with large surface area. However, it uses acid route as catalyst (HCl); hydrothermal process and the copolymer Pluronic 123 (poly(ethylene oxide)-Poly(propylene oxide) as the pore directing agent, TEOS being also the silica precursor in the proportions 1(TEOS):0,017(P123):5,7(HCl):173(H2O). The pores range from 4,6 to 30 nm (ZHOLOBENKO et al., 2008; DE PAULA et al., 2014).
2.3 KIT-6
As in the synthesis for SBA-15, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KIT-6) is synthesized by hydrothermal process, P-123 as pore directing agent and also with the use of acid catalyst (HCl). The use of butanol as a co-solvent and co-director in the proportions of 1(TEOS):0,017(P123):1,83(HCl):195(H2O):1,3(Butanol) (FERNANDES et al., 2015).
Unlike SBA-15 (hexagonal) its structural organization is cubic similar to MCM-48 (another MS41 family member) and with and with pore volumes in the range of 5 to 50 nm. It has occupied prominent places in recent research involving mesoporous materials for bioapplications, and its first synthesis was described in 2003 (KLEITZ et al., 2003; ZHOU et al., 2018). The functional unit of mesoporous silicas (MCM-41, SBA-15, KIT6 or another shape) are the residual silanol groups (-Si-OH) and these allow their functionalization post-synthesis or grafting, optimizing the adsorptive properties (FERNANDES et al., 2021), nanodirectors (targeting) or nanocaptors (uptakes) of drug release (PORTA et al., 2013; OLIVEIRA et al., 2019). The representation of a functionalization process is shown in Figure 03.
Figure 03. Schematic representation of a functionalization process: surface silane groups bind covalently to release drivers such as proteins or peptides, antibodies, carbohydrates, polymers and others. Functionalization can optimize delivery and/or uptake. Created with BioRender.com.
3. Silica-based mesoporous materials: characterization
Characterization is contextualized as the second essential component in the in obtaining a nanomaterial and has as its objectives, through physical or chemical techniques, to through physical or chemical techniques, to understand the aspects related to: (1) size and shape; (2) surface charge (1) size and shape; (2) surface charge; (3) composition and structure; and (4) quantity (FERREIRA et al., 2009; CARVALHO, 2013).
3.1 Size and shape
The use of tools that provide the dimensional and morphological characterization of nanostructured and morphological characterization of nanostructured materials is fundamental and directly related to the applications to be proposed (INMETRO, 2017). Among the techniques described in the literature for this purpose are the measurements of dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements (GUIDE et al., 2013; MONDRAGÓN et al., 2014) i.e., hydrodynamic size with the easy acquisition and interpretation of the data and the and the disadvantage is the dimensional error (INMETRO, 2017) and the characterizations by image highlighting the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (SAAD et al., 2016; OLIVEIRA et al., 2019), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (CASTILHO et al., 2020) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) with the advantage of individual analysis of the nano-object and lower dimensional error compared to DLS and the disadvantage of cost and availability of the equipment (INMETRO, 2017).
The DLS technique is based on the scattering of light scattering in all directions when suspended particles are illuminated with a single-frequency illuminated with a single-frequency laser beam providing information about the about the movement of the particles (Brownian motion) where, small particles exhibit fast motion and large particles slow motion (STETEFELD et al., 2016; POPOVA et al., 2020).
The SEM technique provides morphological information and the chemical composition of the composition of the nanomaterial where the surface of the sample is scanned by a beam of focused electron beam and the interaction with the sample is detected and the image generated. The images can be obtained by backscattered electrons (contrast according to the according to the atomic number of the chemical elements present) or through secondary secondary electrons (faithful image to the relief of the sample). It is possible to complement the analysis through elemental microanalysis (EDS) coupled to the SEM, obtaining the chemical composition of the observed surface region. Initially, the samples are prepared in powder form, receiving a thin coating of gold coating (high conductivity), by a metallizer, fixed in the alumina sample alumina sample holder by a carbon adhesive tape and must withstand the vacuum (LIMA, 2015b; COSTA, 2016).
Khan et al. (2020) synthesized MCM-41 and SBA-15 and their morphological morphological characterizations were performed by SEM. They obtained, for MCM-41, a material presenting spherical particles and sizes ranging from 0.2 to 0.6 μm and for SBA-15 the authors presented a morphological structure with long fibers with long fibers ranging from 20 to 30 µm. These morphologies are described in the literature as typical for MCM-41 mesoporous silica and for SBA-15 and should be complemented with other techniques such as BET and XRD (LENARDA et al., 2006; VILLEGAS et al., 2017; ALBAYAT et al., 2019; OLIVEIRA et al., 2019) and SBA-15 (QUIN et al., 2013; NASCIMENTO et al., 2014; FERNANDES et al., 2016).
The TEM technique allows for a two-dimensional image and magnified hundreds of thousands of times, as the electron beam will interact with a thin sample and is able to pass through the sample, obtaining information of the internal structure of the nanomaterial. The image is formed by the impact of the transmitted and diffracted electrons and for mesoporous silica (MCM-41 and SBA15) it is possible to observe the ordered hexagonal structure (YAMAGUCHI et al., 2011; HE et al., 2013; KISHOR et al., 2016). The sample preparation step is the critical step for the electron beam to be able to pass through it (KISHOR et al., 2016).
3.2 Surface charge
The colloidal stability of nanomaterials is assessed by the Zeta Potential (ZP) correlated the quantification of the surface electrostatic charges and their strength where, attractions and aggregate formations generate instability and repulsions and the absence of aggregates is considered as a stability parameter (PATRA et al., 2014; KHAN et al., 2020).
The variation of ZP over a range of range of pH of the colloidal suspension with attention to the pH dedicated to the bioapplications proposed to the material and the Isoelectric Point (IP) situation considered as the maximum colloidal instability (ALEXANDRINO, 2013; FERREIRA, 2014a; LI et al., 2019). According to Castro et al. (2000), Clogston et al. (2011) and Campos et al. (2017) nanoparticles or nanostructured materials with PZ greater than +30 mV or less than -30 mV are considered stable and without the formation of aggregates.
Dutra et al. (2018) carried out the syntheses of MCM-41 and SBA-15 with the subsequent the interior of the pores with methyl and the exterior with diamine group.Under pH 7.0 conditions, they reported that the residual silanol groups were deprotonated and deprotonated and thus obtained for the pure materials ZP equivalent to -1.14 mV and -1.195 mV, respectively and for the modified ones -0.07 mV and +0.252 mV. For the modified materials this increase is due to the functionalization with the amino group in the residual silanols (reduction of the negative charges).
Li et al. (2019) report for the synthesis of MCM-41 and SBA-15 that, with the increase in pH and the increase in negative charges on the surface, there was a lower adsorptive power of mesoporous silicas for the pyrene adsorbate (higher number of deprotonated of deprotonated OH–). However, these same conditions increased the for cuprum metal (greater electrostatic attraction).
Ferreira (2014) for his characterization of MCM-41 prepared the dispersion of dispersion of 10 mg mL-1 and performed the analysis of ZP in the pH range 2-12, obtaining the correlation graph in ZP and pH. In Figure 04 is possible to verify that the isoelectronic potential (IP) occurs at pH close to 4,89 and that the expected bioapplication would be at pH 7.0 according to the author, corresponding to a ZP of about -30,03 mV.
Figure 04. Representation of the correlation of Zeta Potential (PZ) (mV) with pH for MCM-41. Isoelectronic potential (IP) approximately at pH=4,89 (maximum colloidal instability); PZ at pH=7.0 around -30.0 mV (ideal for bioapplication in this condition).
Source: Authors themselves, 2024.
3.3 Composition and structure
Nanomaterials can have their properties modulated without changing their chemical composition and/or three-dimensional structure, but only by controlling the size and shape of their particles. Thus, it is essential characterization techniques that provide the evaluation in relation to the composition and structure of the nanomaterial (ZARBIN et al., 2007). Among these, stand out in the literature: the absorption spectroscopy in the infrared region Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffractometry (XRD) (PRADHAN et al., 2017; SOHRABNEZHAD et al., 2018), and the adsorption/desorption of nitrogen gas (N2) (VALLET-REGÍ et al., 2007; NASTASE et al., 2014; CAZULA, 2019). The most common configurations for obtaining FTIR spectra are by transmission, transflection or attenuated total reflection (ATR) (LIMA, 2015a) and its basic operation is represented in Figure 05.
Figure 05. Representation of the absorption spectrophotometer in the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) region. (1) Infrared (IR) source; (2) In the interferometer, the IR radiation will meet the beamsplitter – 50% of the beam is transmitted to the movable mirror and 50% reflected to the side mirror (fixed mirror); (3) The IR after being transmitted and reflected will recombine. (4) After recombining, they pass through the mirror and the sample holder (4) Detector generates the interferogram that the software converts into the FTIR spectrum.
Source: Ferreira, 2014. Public archive.
The researchers Paulo et al. (2018) functionalized the surface of MCM-41 with MCM-41 with APTES, 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS), APTES + ε-polycaprolactone (PCL) and GPTMS + chitosan (CS) and the spectra FTIR confirmed the presence of the functionalizing groups and that the process occurred successfully because they were able to identify the presence of the vibrations of the organic groups in the functionalized materials and absent in the pure material, qualifying (analysis qualitative) the composition of the nanomaterial obtained.
It is energetically favorable for the atoms of solid compounds arrange themselves in an ordered and periodic manner then, XRD is a technique that allows us to understand the structure of solids (crystalline and amorphous) by focusing a radiation (alpha radiation from copper, for example) on the nanomaterials and the nanomaterials and the arrangement of the atoms in the material will diffract the X-rays (MARZOUGA et al., 2012; FONTES et al., 2015; SANTANA et al., 2015; KADI et al., 2016). The simplified representation of the X-ray diffractometer is shown in Figure 06.
Figure 06. Basics of the X-ray diffractometry method: (A) The sample is exposed to copper’s Kα radiation from copper is incident on the sample (ʎ= 0.15418 nm). (B) The sample will have an angle θ with its surface and undergoes a deviation 2θ (diffraction angle) in its path. Bragg’s law (nʎ=2dsenθ) makes it possible to correlate the diffraction values with the interplanar distance (Miller planes of a crystal structure). These relationships are compared with data from the literature or the diffractometer’s library of the diffractometer and make it possible to know the structure and composition of nanomaterials.
Source: Shimatzu, 2023. Reproduction authorized.
The structure of MCM-41 was characterized by Golezani et al. (2016), using Kα of Cu (0.15406 nm) with samples incident at low angle 0.5º to 10º (2θ degrees) obtaining three characteristic diffractions, corresponding to the interplanar distances d100, d110 and d200 (Miller indices). These are typical preliminary conditions of hexagonal organization for MCM-41 and SBA-15 according to the literature (BASTOS et al., 2011; SANTANA et al., 2015; SOHRABNEZHAD et al., 2018; SILVA et al., 2019a; SILVA et al., 2019b; JANUS et al., 2020).
The nitrogen gas (N2) adsorption analysis allows to obtain the total specific surface area (SBET) by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method, the pore volume (Vp) and the pore size distribution (pore diameter – Dp) through adsorption-desorption isotherms by the Barret-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) method (THOMMES et al., 2015; SOTOMAYOR et al., 2018; ZANONI et al., 2019a; SWAR et al., 2019).
The technique is based on the multi-molecular theory where, in a closed system, the finely divided closed system, the finely divided solid will be in contact with an inert gas, often N2 (gaseous molecules adsorb onto solids in layers). The adsorption process is dependent on the volume of the gas adsorbed, the mass of the adsorbent, the temperature, the pressure of the adsorbate and the interaction of the adsorbent/adsorbate interaction. In this system the temperature, the mass of the adsorbent and adsorbent/adsorbate interaction are constant and are related to the volume of adsorbed gas (SANTOS, 2012).
The BET model allows adsorption isotherms to be obtained which associate the adsorbed adsorbed volume with the relative pressure p/pº. Stage 1 – condensation of the micropores; Stage 2 – monolayer formation on the surface; Stage 3 – multilayer deposition on the surface and Stage 4 – monolayer deposition on the surface. According to Santos (2012), the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) classifies the isotherms into 06 adsorption classes, represented in Figure 07, emphasizing that mesoporous materials based on silica (MCM-41 and SBA-15) present type IV with p/pº between 0,01-0,99.
Figure 07. Classification of adsorption-desorption isotherms according to IUPAC: (I) type I are typical of microporous solids where adsorption occurs at low pressures; (II and III) type II and type III are typical of non-porous or macroporous materials; (III and V) type III and V are typical of hydrophobic materials with water vapor adsorption or low adsorbent-adsorbate interaction; (IV and V) type IV is typical of a mesoporous material filled in multilayers with desorption at lower pressure than adsorption and present a hysteresis loop; (VI) type VI is typical of special carbon materials typical of special carbon materials.
Source: Santos, 2012. Reproduction authorized.
It is expected for the BET technique that the porous solid has a high surface area and a high specific pore volume and for the non-porous solid to have low surface area and low specific volume. The shape of the isotherms (hysteresis) allows the evaluation of the pore shapes as they are dependent on the adsorption interactions and the pore state. For mesoporous materials, type H2 hysteresis is verified (CALPA, 2011; SANTOS, 2012; POPESCU et al., 2018). In this context, IUPAC allows the classification of pores into micropores (below 2 nm), mesopores (from 2 to 50 nm) and macropores (above 50 nm) (SILVA et al., 2013).
The researchers Popescu et al. (2018) synthesized an MCM-41 matrix and functionalized it with Fe3O4 and folic acid. The isotherms and hysteresis obtained presented, for the pure and functionalized materials, the typical characteristics for ordered mesoporous materials (Type IV H2).
The synthesis and amino functionalization (APTES) of MCM-41 was also performed by Vieira et al. (2017) and obtained for the activated material a surface area (SBET) of 1134,0 m2.g-1 and for the amino-functionalized material a reduction of this area to 228,0 m2.g-1 corresponding to a reduction in the pore volume of pore volume from 1,02 cm3.g-1 to 0,07 cm3.g-1, respectively. Halamová et al. (2012) synthesized a MCM-41 to incorporate the drug naproxen, describing a SBET= 1090,0 m2.g-1 and Vp= 3,12 cm3.g-1.
3.4 Quantification of incorporated drugs
Regarding the techniques that allow the evaluation of the amount of drugs incorporated (adsorbed; loading) in nanostructured matrices, the following stand out in the literature thermogravimetric analysis and its derivative (TGA/DTG) (ZANONI et al., 2019a), elemental analysis (EA) (GRANDO, 2014), spectrophotometry in the ultraviolet/visible (UV/Vis) (LIU et al., 2016) and high-performance liquid chromatographic techniques (HPLC) (LIMNELL et al., 2011).
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is based on the percentage loss and/or gain of mass of the mass of the sample when subjected to a time-temperature schedule in a defined time-temperature schedule in a defined atmosphere (thermobalance) and its first derivative of TGA (DTG) (mathematical arrangement of TGA) allows to identify the start and end points of these mass losses (ARAÚJO; JARONIEC, 2000).
The thermogravimetric curve is the graph that demonstrates the thermal decomposition profile. The thermogravimetric profile of four MCM-41 based materials (a), (b), (c) and (d) were described their thermogravimetric profile by Halamová et al. (2012): the activated MCM-41 (a), functionalized with APTES (b) and incorporated (c-non-functionalized) and (d-functionalized) with naproxen. The temperature range 25 – 150 °C corresponds to the mass loss equivalent to the adsorbed water. After dehydration the activated sample (a) is thermally stable up to 650 °C where there is a small mass loss corresponding to the dehydroxylations of the residual silanol groups. For the aminofunctionalized sample (b) is described the mass loss of 12.5 % in the thermal interval thermal range 200 – 800 °C which corresponds to decomposition and release of the amino from APTES. For the non-functionalized material incorporated with the drug (c) was observed in the temperature range from 200 to 900 °C the loss of mass of mass loss of 34.4 %, equivalent to 344 mg of naproxen loaded by one gram of the sample. The most complex thermogravimetric curve was described for the functionalized and incorporated material (d) obtaining a total mass loss of 41.8 % in the range 200 to 800 °C. The researchers reduced the mass of APTES obtained in (c) to obtain the value of naproxen incorporated in the matrix (d) of 29.3 % equating to 293 mg per gram of the functionalized and incorporated sample.
Elemental analysis (EA) allows the determination of the percentage composition of the elements C, H, N and S elements present in a sample previously prepared thermally (oven drying, kiln or freeze-drying – remove H2O) and homogenization (grating, pistil and sieves). The environmental conditions of the analysis room should be controlled – 15 to 35 ºC and 20 to 80 % humidity (GREENFIELD et al., 2006; FADEEVA et al., 2008).
The most usual AE for solid materials takes place with an autosampler, a reaction column consisting of a reactor (quartz – the entire reaction column), hollow crucible (where the sample will be), wool (separation of compartments), copper oxide (oxidation reactions of the sample) and electrolytic copper electrolytic copper (sample reduction reactions). Previously the gas lines (He and O2) should be set at 50 psi and scales should be stabilized for 30 minutes. The equipment consists of 2 furnaces: (1) combustion of the sample (950 ºC) occurs to of the sample (950 ºC) for C, H, N and S analysis – the most common analytical mode. (2) analysis by pyrolysis (1250 ºC). The chromatographic column is responsible for separating the combustion materials. And the detector is responsible for identifying the electrical signals of the analytes (GREENFIELD et al., 2006; FADEEVA et al., 2008; KROTZ et al., 2017).
Standards are used for the construction of the analytical curve as examples, aspartic acid (N = 10,52%; C = 36,09%; H = 5,30 % and S = 0,00%), l-cysteine (N = 11,66%; C = 29,99%; H = 5,03% and S = 26,69%), sulfanilamide (N = 16,27%; C = 41,84%; H = 4,68% and S = 18,62%) and benzoic acid (N = 0,00%; C = 68,85%; H = 4,95% and S = 0,00%). At the end a chromatogram is obtained, with peaks of nitrogen (N2 form), carbon (CO2 form), hydrogen (H2O form) and sulphur (SO2 form). The software will treat and present the data in percentage of C, H, N and S in the sample (GREENFIELD et al., 2006; KROTZ et al., 2017).
Villegas et al. (2017) carried out the functionalization of MCM-41 with the amino acid lysine (Lys) and characterized by AE, obtaining: a) for the pure material C and N = 0% and H = 0.79% (qualifying that the calcination process was efficient) and b) for the functionalized material the rate of C = 5.95%, H = 2.53% and N = 2.47% (qualifying the occurrence of the functionalization with the presence of the material).
The quantifications with measurements by spectrophotometry in the ultraviolet/visible (UV/Vis) region measurements address the analysis of the supernatant and enable the calculation in relation to the difference of the concentration of the initial solution and the incorporation rate. In some literatures it is also called encapsulation or encapsulation or loading efficiency (EE or EI, respectively) and in the release assays as the rate or content of drug released into the physiological or simulated medium. It covers wavelengths in the range of 200 to 800 nm, with 200 to 400 nm comprising the UV region and 400 to 800 nm equivalent to the Vis region (DIEZ et al., 2015).
The technique is based on the absorption of UV/Vis radiation by a molecule, generating electronic molecule, generating electronic transitions between energy levels. The electronic properties allow the qualitative characterization through the profile or absorption curve and the quantitative characterization through correlation with the the calibration curve (A = a.C + b) or comparison with the absorbance of standards at known concentrations where spectrophotometers can measure the absorption and/or transmission of light. The fundamental law of spectrophotometry is the Lambert-Beer law given by: A = a.b.C where, A = absorbance; a = absorptivity of the molecule; b = optical path; C = concentration. Spectrophotometry may be hyphenated as a detector in the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) (NGUYEN et al., 2020; VENTON, 2022).
In his doctoral thesis, researcher Gunaydin (2014) incorporated (loading) the anti-inflammatory drug celocoxib (COX-2 selective) into the mesoporous matrix MCM-41 and subsequently performed the release of the same. The quantification was performed by UV/Vis absorption spectrophotometry at 254 nm standardized with an absorption curve A= 76.8.C + 0.01 with linear correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.988. On this occasion, the analytical blank was ethanol.
A nanoemulsion was elaborated by Santos et al. (2020) and incorporated with clotrimazole, seeking the repositioning of this vaginal antimycotic agent, and quantified the incorporation efficiency (%EI) by the supernatant using the UV/Vis technique and with the mathematical equation:
Legend: %EI = percentage of encapsulation or incorporation of the drug.
For the quantification of the released drugs from the silica-based nanocarriers, the silica-based nanocarriers, the diffusion process through the reservoir is considered as the main event. reservoir as the main event. These mesoporous matrices are “insoluble” and considered as a reservoir system because the drug is found inside their pores, therefore, the release rate is determined by the diffusion coefficient of the drug through them (MANZANO et al., 2008; COIMBRA et al., 2010). In the literature, the most evident technique for quantify the drugs diffused from these matrices is spectrophotometry in the UV/vis (MANZANO et al., 2008; ÁLMASI et al., 2021; ZAUSKA et al., 2021).
Among the mathematical models applied to the quantification of drugs released from the reservoir matrices, the literature describes as Higuchi (1963), Ritger-Peppas (1987) and Korsmeyer-Peppas (1983) models (FREITAS et al., 2017; UNAGOLLA et al., 2019; ATIYAH et al., 2022)
Higuchi’s diffusion model is based on Fick’s second law described by the equation M= Kt1/2; where M= amount of drug released, K is release constant and t the time. The Ritger-Peppas model described by the equation Mt/M∞= ktn where: Mt= amount of drug released in the time interval; M∞ = is the total amount of drug incorporated into the mesoporous silica; K= constant of proportionality – considers structural and geometric characteristics of the structural and geometric characteristics of the network and the drug; t= time and n= exponent of the release profile. The Korsmeyer-Peppas model is based on a release that follows Fick’s law of diffusion and that also does not follow Fick’s law with the mathematical expression identical to that applied by Ritger-Peppas where n= indicative of the drug transport mechanism, K is the constant which incorporates characteristics of the interaction of macromolecular systems with the drug. Performing the natural logarithm on both sides determines the diffusion parameters n and K (FREITAS et al., 2017).
Hassan et al. (2015) carried out the incorporation of the anti-inflammatory drug meloxicam in MCM-41, applying the Higuchi release kinetic model. Freitas et al. (2017) obtained for the MCM-41 and MCM-41 material aminofunctionalized with APTES incorporated with methotrexate a better fit by the Higuchi model in relation to the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. The release profile for the aminofunctionalized sample observed that in 12 h of release almost 90% of the drug is already released.
4. Choice of drugs
Therapeutic success is dependent on the delivery system, distribution and release of the drug. Patient compliance with posology is critical. Conventional multi-dose therapies require long periods of treatment and several daily doses generating adverse effects and often the patient gives up treatment, bacterial resistance occurs in the case of antibiotics or of antibiotics or therapeutic ineffectiveness. The maintenance or targeting of the drug, provides patient obedience to treatment and consequently greater treatment success (ALMEIDA JÚNIOR et al., 2021).
Thus, strategically a drug incorporated into a mesoporous silica-based nanocarrier with functionalized or non-functionalized mesoporous structure (nanovetorization of release) may be evaluated for its potential use for the already known therapeutic action or its therapeutic repositioning for a new therapeutic action to be researched (BRAZ et al., 2016).
5. Nanotechnology strategies for bioapplications
It is notable that the largest number of publications involving nanocarriers for bioapplications are related to tumor issues or correlated to them as issues such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions; whether in therapeutic (ASLAN et al., 2013), diagnostic or theranostic (YUE et al., 2018) of this pathology. In the passive targeting of nanomaterials there is no functionalization of the nanocarrier surface for the active targeting of the delivery (targetting), it is favored by vectorization or Enhanced Permeability and Retection effect known by EPR effect (KOBAYASHI et al., 2013; VIEIRA et al., 2016), shown in Figure 8A.
Figure 8. EPR effect – passive vectorization (A) and active vectorization (B).
Source: Vieira et al. (2016). Reproduction authorized.
The EPR effect is a physiological condition that occurs in regions of the body where an inflammatory process is present, including tumors, where endothelial cells (cells of the blood vessels adjacent to the inflammatory or tumoral blood vessels adjacent to the inflammatory or tumor process) allow for the permeability/extravasation of endothelial contents into the inflamed tissue due to vasodilatation and distancing between endothelial cells in this region resulting in passive accumulation of nanoparticles in the inflamed or tumor tissue, a factor that does not occur with healthy cells, as they remain juxtaposed to endothelial cells (FERON et al., 2010; VIEIRA et al., 2016; ROSENBLUM et al., 2018). It has the disadvantage of non-specific uptake, which can generate which can generate toxicity to non-tumor cell lines (VIVEK et al., 2017).
The modification or functionalization of the nanocarrier surface is shown in Figure 8B like a technological strategy that can favor the uptake and active targeting of the agent to the desired or pathological site whose mechanism is related to expression or overexpression of receptors in certain pathologies, metabolic in certain pathologies, metabolic needs to maintain the high rate of cell division such as glucose derivatives or co-factors of formation of genetic material or antigens or antibodies. As an example, overexpression of folate receptor (FRα) is presents in several human cancers as it essential substrate for cell proliferation and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) synthesis (LEONE et al., 2015; FREITAS et al., 2016; VIEIRA et al., 2016; VIVEK et al., 2017).
Increasing bioavailability and/or stability through core-shell strategies (Figure 9), avoiding recognition of the nanoparticles by the immune system or increasing their blood circulation time or chemical increased chemical stability under biological conditions is described in the literature and increase the performance of the active uptake and targeting processes (CASTRO et al., 2019).
Figure 9. Representation of core-shell structures: (I) inert core-shell; (II) active core-shell -allows adsorption or doping; (III) multi-layer core-shell.
Source: Mahdavi et al. 2020. Reproduction authorized.
Another promising strategy that has gained prominence in the nanotechnology literature is the use of pH responsive polymers or hydrogels. They respond to stimuli according to the physiological pH, optimizing drug delivery processes (POURJAVADI et al., 2014; CHEN et al., 2015; RAFI et al., 2016; LI et al., 2021).
Monteiro et al. (2019) synthesized the polymer Poly[(N-isopropylacrylamide)-co- (methacrylic acid)](P[(N-iPAAm)-co-(MAA)]) and coated it on SBA-15 incorporated with the antitumor drug methotrexate, forming a pH-responsive hybrid system of tumor cells relative to the pH of non-tumor cell lines, optimizing the controlled release of the antitumoral drug. Pourjavadi et al. (2014) presented a hybrid system of APTES-functionalized MCM-41 incorporated with erythroid antibiotic, using the co-polymer PEG-chitosan (pegylated chitosan) as pH responsive hydrogel, the system was evaluated at pH 7.4 (physiologic pH) and 5.5 (inflammatory pH) with better performance in the antibiotic release at inflammatory pH.
6. Biological assays
6.1 Cytotoxicity
The application of in vitro and in vivo safety assessment assays is a common routine in the biological evaluation of natural and/or synthetic products. It has initial objective is to evaluate the biocompatibility of biomaterials or health products by exposure of a cell culture to the material and the subsequent characterization of the resulting adverse cytotoxicity reactions (TONUS et al., 2008; GUIDI et al., 2013; MASSON et al., 2016).
Among the assays for cytotoxic evaluation in the literature has gained prominence the Colorimetric of Toxicology – XTT or assays for the evaluation of inflammatory (COX-2 inhibition), genotoxic (AMES, Micronucleus and/or Comet) or biochemical parameters (metabolomics) (PERARO et al., 2020; FURTADO et al., 2021; PONTES et al., 2021). The Colorimetric Toxicology Assay – MTT (PONTES et al., 2021) is also described in the literature. of Toxicology – MTT (Colorimetric method of reduction of 3-[4,5-sulfopheny]-2H tetrazolium-5- carboxynilide). XTT is more widely used due to its solubility and not requiring cell lysis before reading in ELISA.
XTT is based on the mitochondrial metabolism (mitochondrial dehydrogenases) of cells where the reduction of the yellow tetrazolium salt occurs (3-[1-(phenylaminocarbonyl)-3,4-tetrazolium acid hydrate]-bis(4-methoxy6-nitro)benzene sulfonic acid) to orange formazan. The formazan is quantified directly in the multiwell scanning spectrophotometer by reader ELISA. The higher the number of live cells, the higher the overall activity of the mitochondrial dehydrogenases in the sample and thus, there is a directly proportional correlation between the amount of formazan orange detected (PAULL et al., 1988). The reaction of reduction of XTT to formazan is shown in Figure 22.
Figure 10. Reduction reaction of XTT (yellow) to formazan (orange).
Source: Authors themselves, 2024.
In terms of methodology, the guidelines in the package insert of the manufacturer’s kit should be followed.
Esfahani et al. (2021) synthesized pegylated MCM-41 incorporated with febendazole and evaluated febendazole and evaluated cytotoxicity against human prostate cancer cells (PC-3) considering an incorporation rate of 17.2% of the drug into the matrix. With this repositioning, the researchers obtained a 3,6-fold increase in cytotoxicity against PC-3 when compared to the effects of the pure drug.
Paiva et al. (2020) incorporated the immunosuppressant tracolimus (indicated for post-transplant immunosuppression) into MCM-41 silica functionalized with APTES with an incorporation rate of 7% and evaluated the cell viability in vitro in retinal epithelial cells (ARPE-19), obtaining no cytotoxicity of the material.
Solanki et al. (2019) incorporated the antitumor camptothecin into MCM-41 functionalized with 12-tungstophosphoric acid (TPA). The cytotoxicity was evaluated in vitro by MTT on human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) and the results were promising because, the functionalized nanocarriers incorporated with the antitumor drug showed 9,2% higher toxicity to cancer cells when compared to the drug at the same dose.
The mesoporous silica materials MCM-41 and MCM-functionalized with APTES were evaluated for cytotoxicity in the work carried out by Braz et al. (2016), the pure materials did not present toxicity to human lung fibroblasts (GM07492A).
6.2 Antimicrobial activity
In the literature, the most prominent methods to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of natural and/or synthetic activity (antimicrobial screening) products are: a) qualitative qualitative agar diffusion (Kirby Bauer), using disk, well or template techniques; b) the quantitative dilution (macrodilution) or broth microdilution by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) or minimum bacteriostatic concentration (MBC) (GOMES et al., 2004; ALVES et al., 2008; CLSI, 2008; CLSI, 2009; CLSI, 2012a; CLSI, 2012b; BONA et al., 2014).
Mesoporous silica-based nanostructured products are investigated as carriers for novel antimicrobial agents, optimizing activity when compared to new antimicrobial agents, optimizing the activity when compared to classical antimicrobials, however, with the possible reduction of toxicity, and to seek to optimize efficiency against resistant pathogenic microorganisms and/or to obtain lower environmental impact or sustainability (KANG et al., 2007; PARK et al., 2012; SEGALA et al., 2012; BONA et al., 2014).
For the agar diffusion test, previously the bacterial strains from the ATCC should be reactivated in Brain and Heart Infusion (BHI) broth at 37°C for 24 hours and standardized to McFarland scale standard 0,5 (equivalent to 108 CFU/mL). For the disk method, sterile 6 mm disks are added to about 20 μl of the dilutions of the compounds to be tested. The disk is applied to the Petri dish containing Mueller Hinton agar (for bacteria) (MH) or Sabouraud dextrose (SDA) agar (for fungi), previously inoculated with standardized concentration of the microorganism to be tested). The plates are incubated at 37 °C for 18-24 hours. The halos of inhibition of microbial growth are measured in millimeters, with the aid of a ruler or caliper. The observation of inhibition halos greater than 6 mm is considered that the inhibitory activity was satisfactory (BONA et al., 2014). There is a description in the literature of surface inoculation with the aid of Swab (ZANONI et al., 2019b) or in a double layer with inoculum of the microorganism next to the second layer (PERARO et al., 2020).
The diffusion test using the well method differs from the disk test in that instead of disks test by the design that instead of disks, holes or wells of 6 mm in diameter are made in the MH agar culture medium using a mold. The sample to be tested and its concentrations (solids) are directed into these wells (PERARO et al., 2020). The Figure 11 shows an example of agar diffusion by the well method.
Figure 11. Agar diffusion method using well technique – inhibition halos were observed for sensitive microorganisms and absence of halos for resistant microorganisms.
Source: Braz et al., 2023. Reproduction authorized.
Ferreira et al. (2021) synthesized MCM-41 and incorporated the antimycotic fluconazole and tested the antimycotic activity by the well method. It was possible to observed that at a concentration 5,6 times lower than the molecular drug, satisfactory qualitative inhibition occurred for Candida albicans and no inhibitory action for Candida krusey.
Zanoni et al. (2019b) evaluated the qualitative antibacterial activity of silica nanoparticles of doped with CuO against Staphylococcus. aureus and Escherichia coli and the antimycotic activity against Candida albicans using the well method with inhibitory activity for all strains tested.
For the quantitative parameter MIC, the strains are recovered in the same way in BHI broth at 37 ºC for 24 hours. They are then distributed in 96-well microdilution plates. Bona et al. (2014) describe the use of 150 µL of MH (double concentration) for bacteria and RPMI-1640 broth (Roswell Park Memorial Institute Roswell Park Memorial Institute) with glutamine, without sodium bicarbonate and with 2% glucose (dual concentration) for Candida albicans, in all wells. Dilutions are performed (μL are taken from each well from column 1 to column 2, and so on up to column 12) and then the working concentration ranges to be tested are obtained. concentrations to be tested (for example, 100 to 0,04 mg mL-1).
Next, a µL aliquot of the inoculum should be added to each well of the microplate. Incubation at 35 °C for 24 hours. After the incubation time add 20 µL of an aqueous solution of triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) solution and the microplates should again be incubated at 36 °C for a further 3 hours. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) is defined by as the lowest concentration of the extract in mg mL-1 capable of preventing visible microbial growth (BONA et al., 2014; MORAIS et al., 2020).
The Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) in the sequence is determined by taking a 10 µL aliquot from wells with no bactericidal concentration growth in the MIC test and inoculated onto the surface of MH agar. The plates are incubated at 36 °C for 24 hours. The MBC (the lowest concentration that causes death of the inoculum) is found. MIC and MBC assays should be performed in triplicate (BONA et al., 2014; MORAIS et al., 2020).
Villegas et al. (2017) evaluated the antimicrobial action of the biomaterial MCM-41 functionalized with the amino acid L-Lysine, using cyanuric chloride as coupling agent. They obtained an 88% reduction in biofilm formation by Staphylococcus aureus with the functionalized material compared to the pure material.
Nazir et al. (2021) synthesized by hydrothermal method the hybrid material ZnO/Pd-MCM-41 and demonstrated the antibacterial efficiency by diffusion method against Escherichia coli; Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus.
Santos Filho et al. (2021) carried out the synthesis, characterization and antimicrobial activity of mesoporous silica MCM-4 and SBA-15 incorporated with lignin hinoquinine (hinokinin) obtaining for two samples promising results against Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Streptococcus mutans.
7. Final considerations
Therapeutic success is dependent on the drug administration, distribution and release system. Patient compliance with the dosage is essential. Conventional multi-dose therapies require long periods of treatment and several daily doses, generating adverse effects and the patient often gives up treatment, resulting in bacterial resistance in the case of antibiotics or therapeutic ineffectiveness. Maintaining or directing the drug provides patient compliance with treatment and consequently greater treatment success.
Thus, strategically, a drug incorporated into a nanocarrier with a functionalized or non-functionalized mesoporous structure (nanodirector) can be evaluated for its potential use for the already known therapeutic action or its therapeutic repositioning for a new therapeutic action to be researched.
The work encourages partnerships between academia and business sectors, which can provide technological and scientific development, enabling the development of new drugs or new applications.
8. Acknowledgment
This study was financed in part by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brasil (CAPES) – Finance Code 001. The development agencies FAPESP (FAPESP, processes 2019/26439-5 (E.J.N.), and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, processes 308983/2021-1 (L.A.R.), and 303228/2021-0 (E.J.N.) are also acknowledged.
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1University of Franca – Post-graduation course in Sciences – Franca-SP, Brazil.
2Federal University of Juiz de Fora – Post-graduation course in Pharmaceutical Sciences – Juiz de Fora, Brazil.
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Wilson Rodrigues Braz (prof.wilsonbraztoxicologia@gmail.com) – Post-graduation in Sciences (PhD). University of Franca/SP. Av. Doutor Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201. 14404-600. Franca (SP), Brazil. Tel: (16) 3711 – 8783
Conflicts of interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest situation.