SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND THERMOCHEMICAL PROCESSING: COMPOSITION, TRENDS, AND ENERGY RECOVERY APPLICATIONS
REGISTRO DOI: 10.69849/revistaft/fa10202511121638
Ana Carolina de Oliveira Carvalho1
Luiz Eduardo Pizarro Borges2
ABSTRACT
Solid waste management and thermochemical conversion have become central topics on the environmental agenda of many countries in recent decades, particularly in the context of energy recovery applications. The annual generation of solid waste (SW) reaches approximately 2.24 billion tons, with a projected increase of 60% by 2050, resulting in significant economic and public health impacts. The global rise in waste production underscores the need for effective strategies to mitigate pressures on natural resources, social well-being, and the economy. The global cost of waste management was estimated at USD 252 billion in 2021 and may be considerably higher when hidden costs associated with pollution, adverse health effects, and environmental degradation are taken into account. In Brazil, the composition of municipal solid waste (MSW) is predominantly organic (45.3%), followed by dry recyclables (33.6%), such as plastics (16.8%), glass (2.7%), and metals (2.3%). Emerging technologies have been applied to the recycling of plastics, metals, glass, paper, rubber, and biomass. Studies on waste composition enable its transformation into raw materials for the energy, chemical, agricultural, biofuel, and bioadsorbent sectors. Among thermochemical processes for waste valorization, pyrolysis stands out due to its ability to convert materials into solid, gaseous, and liquid fractions in the absence of oxygen. This study conducts a bibliometric analysis to examine words and terms associated with pyrolysis in the scientific literature published between 2005 and 2025. By analyzing correlations among.
Keywords: Environmental sustainability; Renewable energy; Thermal Process; Sustainability.
1 INTRODUÇÃO
According to the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP, 2024), the growth of solid waste worldwide necessitates strategies to minimize impacts on natural resources, social well-being, and the economy. Currently, the annual generation of solid waste (SW) reaches approximately 2.24 billion tons, with a projected increase of 60% by 2050, resulting in significant economic and public health consequences (Dladla et al., 2016; Moraes et al., 2015).
Several national and international conferences and agreements—such as the Stockholm Conference (1972), Nairobi Conference (1982), Eco-92 (1992), +10 (Johannesburg, 2002), Rio+20 (2012), and the G20 (2024) in Rio de Janeiro—have aimed to align global understanding of sustainable development (Jacobi et al., 2011; Nunes et al., 2023). According to Brundtland (1992), sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own.
Solid waste encompasses various categories, including consumables (e.g., food and plastic waste), specific products (e.g., electronic and electrical waste, vehicle carcasses), construction and demolition waste, as well as agricultural, hospital, and industrial waste (Coelho et al., 2021).
In Brazil, waste management and reuse initiatives are guided by the National Solid Waste Policy (PNRS). This policy is integrated with the National Environmental Policy and the National Environmental Education Policy, and it incorporates the “5 Rs” strategy in industry: rethink, refuse, reduce, reuse, and recycle. Since its inception in the 1990s, the PNRS has undergone continuous improvements, addressing both advancements and ongoing challenges in solid waste management. Over the years, various ministries and foundations coordinated efforts that culminated in the enactment of the PNRS law in 2010 (Brasil, 1988). Recycling plays a key role by transforming waste into new products or recovering the original raw materials (Besen et al., 2014).
Sustainable development requires the progressive transformation of the economy and society while preserving ecosystems and meeting basic human needs (Trejo et al., 2018).Waste collection and recycling provide both social and environmental benefits, improving the living conditions of vulnerable communities.
Since 2000, many municipalities have implemented solid waste management services. The cost of waste management varies by Brazilian macroregion, being higher in the Southeast (R$142.53 per inhabitant) and Midwest (R$122.26), influenced by type, volume, transportation, treatment, legislation, and technology. The valorization of solid waste has the potential to reduce global carbon emissions by 15–25%. Research on waste composition enables its conversion into raw materials for applications in the energy, chemical, agricultural, biofuel, and bioadsorbent sectors (Trejo et al., 2018).
Emerging technologies have been applied to the recycling of plastics (Armenise et al., 2021), rubber (Pinho et al., 2018), and biomass (Jiang et al., 2017; Tariq et al., 2022). Lignocellulosic biomass, which is primarily composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, has gained increasing attention due to the growing demand for chemical products. This trend has driven the search for new non-fossil raw materials, with lignocellulosic and oilseed biomass offering significant benefits to countries with large territorial areas, such as Brazil (Bridgwater, 2012; Moreira et al., 2022).
Pyrolysis has been used for thousands of years to produce charcoal, but only in the last 30 years have specific types, such as fast pyrolysis at moderate temperatures (~500 °C) with very short reaction times (up to 2 s), received significant attention, alongside slow pyrolysis and carbonization. Of particular note is the increasing diversity of methods and catalysts, especially the growing complexity and sophistication of multi-functional catalyst systems (Anca-Couce et al., 2020; Bridgwater, 2012; Bernardino et al., 2018; Deng et al., 2017).
Thermal and catalytic pyrolysis is a promising strategy for the valorization of discarded materials. This study reviews articles published between 2005 and 2025 to analyze trends and developments in the application of pyrolysis for energy recovery. Articles were selected from Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect based on relevance, citations, recency, and connection to urban and municipal waste. The selected studies addressed thermal and catalytic processes, focusing on energy efficiency, environmental impact, technologies, and policies. Bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer, Limaps, and RStudio identified common keywords, term co-occurrences, prominent authors, and collaborative networks, forming thematic clusters that highlight research trends and knowledge gaps in energy recovery via pyrolysis.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 State of the art
2.1.1 Solid Waste
Residue is an old concept, originating from the Latin residuum, meaning “that which remains.” Its definition has changed little over time and is commonly understood as “a small amount of something left after the main part has been removed or used.” In chemistry, to what is left after processes such as combustion, evaporation, or digestion—often a sediment or residual waste (Boudia, et al.,2018).
In line with these meanings, the residues discussed here are both by-products of extractive and industrial activities and agents that escape controlled environments, influencing the emergence of new biological, chemical, geological, and sociotechnical systems. This conceptualization highlights the multifaceted nature of chemical residues (Boudia, et al.,2018). In Brazil, according to the PNRS (Law No. 12,305/2010) solid waste consists of solid or semisolid materials discarded from human activities. The management of this waste includes steps such as generation, collection (conventional and selective), treatment, destination, and final disposal (Ministry of Environment and Climate Change, 2024). Knowledge of the gravimetric composition of waste is essential for proper planning and environmentally correct disposal. The generation of solid waste requires identification of what waste is generated, in what volume and where. In 2022, each Brazilian generated, on average, 1.04 kg of MSW per day, totaling approximately 77.1 million tons in the country and a daily production of more than 211 thousand tons. Brazil covers an area of approximately 8,515,76 km2 making it the fifth-largest country in the world and the largest in South America. Its territory represents about 47.3%of the South American landmass and shares borders with ten countries in the region, with the exceptions of Chile and Ecuador (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2022) Figure 1.
Figure 1. Spatial representation of Brazil highlighted within the global map.
The National Solid Waste Plan, established by Decree No. 11,043/2022, defines guidelines, strategies, and goals to enhance solid waste management in Brazil, with the support of Ibama. The plan provides diagnostic assessments, future scenarios, and proposed actions to fulfill the objectives of the PNRS, including the regulation and monitoring of products prohibited from disposal in common waste streams. Ibama also collects information on management plans and environmentally appropriate disposal practices.
These initiatives align with the broader shift from the traditional linear economy—based on extraction, use, and disposal—to a circular economy model. According to Cerqueira-Streit et al. (2021), the circular economy offers an alternative to the linear model, mitigating its negative societal and environmental impacts caused by high pollution levels and resource degradation.
The principles of shared responsibility for the life cycle of products and reverse logistics are important advances, allowing the collection and return of waste to the business sector for reuse or proper disposal. The differences between solid waste and urban solid waste involve origin, composition, management, and legislation, with the destination of urban waste being a technological, political, and economic challenge (IPEA, 2024).
2.1.2 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
The composition of Brazilian municipal solid waste (MSW) is diverse, with a predominance of the organic fraction (45.3%), followed by dry recyclables (33.6%), primarily plastics (16.8%), glass (2.7%), and metals (2.3%) (SINIR+, 2021). National gravimetric data also account for waste generation by municipal income range and per capita composition (ABRELPE, 2020). The composition of MSW varies across countries, depending on consumption habits, levels of industrialization, public policies, and cultural factors (Hohemberger et al., 2024).
Globally, the reuse of organic waste for sustainable energy has gained increasing attention. To estimate the generation of waste in the animal protein production chain, the herds of cattle (beef and dairy), pork, chicken, sheep, and goat in each municipality were taken into Account (Santos et al., 2023). The energy potential was estimated by taking into account the generation of biogas from each waste, according to its species, and the ability to transform this biogas into electricity, study of estimated Santos et al., (2023).
2.1.3 Biomass Waste
The conversion of biomass depends on the composition of the feedstock, which can include agricultural and industrial residues such as cellulose, sawdust, bagasse, and husks, as well as specific energy crops. Lignocellulosic biomass is considered viable and technologically mature, being primarily composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, each with distinct chemical structures and thermal stabilities.
Cellulose is the main structural component, formed by glucose units linked through hydrogen bonds that confer crystallinity. Hemicellulose composition varies according to plant species and developmental stage, including types such as xyloglucans, glucuronoarabinoxylans, glucuronoxylans, and galactoglucomannans. Lignin consists of irregular polymers derived from the polymerization of coniferyl alcohol and can be classified as non-core or core lignin (Lapierre, 1993).
2.1.4 Plastic Waste
Plastic pollution represents a significant environmental and socioeconomic challenge, largely resulting from inadequate solid waste management. Plastics are synthetic polymers that are lightweight, durable, and widely used; however, poor management has turned them into persistent contaminants (Montagner et al., 2021).
In 2023, of the 884 thousand tons of recycled resins, 41.4% were PET, followed by HDPE, PP, and LDPE. Thermal degradation of plastics enables the production of monomers and low-molecular-weight compounds, with random scission being the predominant mechanism, as observed in polyethylene. Pyrolysis of different plastics produces liquid fuels with distinct characteristics (Quesada et al., 2020). The composition of the plastic mixture directly affects the properties of the resulting fuel, including viscosity and the content of aromatic compounds.
2.1.5 Waste Rubber
Residual rubber, particularly from waste tires, has been extensively studied for its conversion into energy and fuels via pyrolysis (Ferreira, 2016). Rubber, whether natural or synthetic, is used in a wide range of products, with synthetic rubber being the most prevalent in the market. Pyrolysis of synthetic rubbers and tires produces compounds containing sulfur, aromatic structures, and oligomers, which pose environmental and health challenges (Quek et al., 2012; Bindar et al., 2024).
Rubber production in Southeast Asia exceeds 12.8 million tons and is projected to grow. Tires are composed of multiple materials—including rubber, fabrics, steel, plasticizers, and aditives (Table 1) — making the separation of components for recycling and processing complex (Danon et al., 2015).
2.1.6 Other Waste
In 2022, the glass recycling rate in Brazil reached 25.8%, with the sector represented by ABIVIDRO. Paper recycling achieved 85% in the same year, positioning Brazil among the global leaders. Although a substantial portion of global paper production relies on scrap recycling, logistical challenges limit significant export capacity.
Recycling aluminum reduces the need for bauxite extraction, while glass recycling decreases sand extraction. In 2019, 53 million tons of electronic waste were generated worldwide, yet only 17.3% were recycled. Reverse logistics programs for fluorescent lamps exemplify sustainable initiatives, supported by legislation since 2014.
Metallic waste constitutes a significant share of the materials generated across various sectors. This category includes ferrous scrap (iron and steel), nonferrous scrap (aluminum, copper, brass, zinc, and lead), industrial waste containing heavy metals and oils, and electronic waste (e-waste), composed of obsolete equipment and trace metals.
The expansion of recovery rates relies on the active participation of consumers, municipal governments, and urban waste service providers. Studies demonstrate the economic and environmental feasibility of producing biofuels from organic waste, contributing to energy diversification and reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Nevertheless, further research and investment are required for large-scale implementation.
2.2 Thermochemical Processes
The principal thermochemical conversion processes—gasification, pyrolysis, and incineration—each generate distinct products and serve specific market applications (Hassan et al., 2020).
Gasification
Gasification consists of the partial thermal oxidation of carbon-based materials, producing gases composed of CO, H2, CO2, CH4, N2, and others, as well as coal, ash, tar, and oil (Balat, 2010; Anca-Couce et al., 2020). The process takes place with temperature and oxygen control below what is necessary for complete combustion.
Syngas (CO and H2) can be converted into higher-value products via Fischer‒Tropsch synthesis, and CO2 methanation can generate renewable energy. The production of synthetic natural gas from the catalytic gasification of biomass is considered feasible because of its low cost (Balat, 2010).
Incineration
Incineration is a thermal waste treatment process that converts solid waste into energy in the presence of oxygen, with metals and ash produced as by-products. To mitigate environmental damage, it is essential to implement emission control measures and properly treat residues containing heavy metals. The advancement of incineration technologies in Brazil has been facilitated by public–private partnerships and environmental licensing mechanisms. A common approach, known as the mass-burn technique, involves the incineration of raw waste, which primarily includes domestic and industrial materials. However, legislation such as Law 6.819/2021 in Brasília prohibits the incineration of municipal solid waste, reflecting concerns raised by waste pickers’ organizations.
Composting
Composting offers an alternative treatment for the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW). This process requires careful moisture control to prevent anaerobic conditions, which can hinder decomposition and lead to undesirable emissions. Recent studies have examined the integration of pyrolysis and incineration to further reduce the release of harmful compounds. While incineration can provide environmental benefits compared to landfilling, it requires stringent emission controls to ensure safety and compliance with environmental standards.
Landfill Disposal
The disposal of waste in landfills necessitates several protective measures, including soil impermeabilization, the installation of fencing, the exclusion of waste pickers, and the establishment of gas and leachate drainage systems. These steps are crucial for safeguarding public health and the environment. According to the National Solid Waste Policy (PNRS), only waste that cannot be treated through alternative methods should ultimately be sent to landfills, in line with the goals of reducing waste volume and minimizing social and environmental impacts. It is also important to support families who rely on collecting recyclable materials by integrating them into cooperative structures, ensuring their continued livelihood and participation in sustainable waste management.
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical degradation process that occurs in the complete absence of oxygen, converting waste into solid, gaseous, and liquid fractions. The solid fraction consists of ash and carbonaceous material; the gaseous fraction is combustible; and the liquid fraction (bio-oil) contains energy-rich hydrocarbons that may be used as fuel or as a precursor for chemical products.
Pyrolytic reactions can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. The main operational modes of pyrolysis—slow, fast, and flash (instantaneous)—are distinguished by their characteristic temperatures and residence times. Slow pyrolysis primarily yields biochar with adsorptive properties, whereas fast and flash pyrolysis tend to produce liquid fractions of higher quality.
The use of catalysts can improve reaction pathways and optimize product formation; however, it also requires careful consideration of competing and simultaneous reactions. Both residence time and heating rate exert significant influence on the type of pyrolysis employed and directly affect product distribution, yield, and quality.
3 METHODS AND DATA ACQUISITION
The findings reveal more than ten methodological approaches illustrating how these tools can refine the processes of searching, organizing, classifying, retrieving, and disseminating scientific knowledge within an RStudio-based workflow. The script presented below demonstrates how such integration can foster more creative and relevant solutions, as well as illuminate future research directions at this intersection.
The scrip RStudio used for exporting the document is shown below:
# 1. Install required packages install.packages(c(“dplyr”, “writexl”, “knitr”, “kableExtra”))
# 2. Load Packages library(dplyr) library(writexl) library(knitr) library(kableExtra)
# 3. Read the CSV file (adjust the path to your PC) dados2 <- read.csv( “C:/Users/PAPERS/ Downloads/untitled.csv”, header = TRUE, sep = “,”, stringsAsFactors = FALSE)
# 4. Check column names colnames(dados2)
# 5. Select major columns for the comparison table quadro <- dados2%>% select(DOI, Title, Authors, Journal, Year, Abstract)
# 6. View Formatted Table in R kbl(quadro, caption = “Quadro Comparativo das Referências”) %>% kable_styling(full_width = FALSE, bootstrap_options = c(“striped”, “hover”, “condensed”))
# 7. Export for Excel write_xlsx(quadro, “quadro_comparativo.xlsx”) cat(“Arquivo ‘quadro_comparativo.xlsx’ gerado na pasta:”, getwd())
The bibliometric analysis was conducted using VOSviewer (online version), a widely employed software for constructing and visualizing scientific maps based on bibliographic data. Initially, search descriptors and Boolean operators were defined and applied to the databases. This article is grounded in a qualitative mapping of recent contributions involving the generative tools Litmaps and RStudio, supported by a narrative review of works published since 2005-2025, including article titles, DOIs, journal sources, publication years, authorship, and abstract information.The retrieved records were exported in formats compatible with VOSviewer (CSV, RIS, and TXT), containing information such as title, authors, keywords, year of publication, affiliations, and cited references.
The files were subsequently imported into VOSviewer Online and desktop, enabling the construction of three main types of bibliometric networks: keyword co-occurrence, coauthorship, and co-citation. For each analysis, inclusion criteria were applied, establishing a minimum number of occurrences for displaying terms, authors, or documents. The normalization method used was the software default, “association strength”, ensuring comparability among items.
The software allowed for the automatic identification of clusters, representing thematic groupings or research communities. Visualization parameters, including scale, density, distance, and node coloring, were adjusted to highlight relevant relationships and facilitate result interpretation. The generated maps were analyzed qualitatively, considering connection intensity, node centrality, thematic distribution, and temporal evolution of topics.
Additionally, a descriptive analysis of the metadata was performed, including publication frequencies, most productive authors, highest-impact journals, and annual distribution of records. Finally, the visualizations produced by VOSviewer were exported and incorporated into the final report, forming the basis for discussing trends, gaps, and research opportunities in the investigated field.
4 RESULTS
The management of urban and municipal waste significantly affects environmental quality and overall well-being. Further research on waste management pathways and degradation mechanisms, guided by sustainability principles, remains essential. Thermal or catalytic pyrolysis represents a promising approach for the reutilization of discarded materials. This study reviews articles published between 2005 and 2025 to analyze potential correlations and advancements in the application of pyrolysis for energy recovery. Figure 2. shows articles exported for an RStudio script and then visualized using VOSviewer.
Figure 2. A cluster of articles has exported for an RStudio script and then visualized using VOSviewer.
VOSviewer facilitated the literature analysis, identifying 816 terms, 46,316 links, a total link strength of 50,500, and 12 clusters. Research employing machine learning highlighted key variables that enhance the yields of bio-oil, biogas, and biochar in pyrolysis studies emphasizing green and sustainable approaches. Regarding biochar, slow pyrolysis consistently produces material with advantageous properties, whereas fast pyrolysis may release phytotoxic compounds. Comparative studies of slow, fast, and instantaneous pyrolysis of corn cob waste revealed that bio-oil yield is highest during instantaneous pyrolysis, while biochar and biogas yields are maximized under slow pyrolysis conditions.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The bibliometric analysis conducted using Limaps, RStudio (Bibliometrix) and VOSviewer presented inherent limitations. The results depended strongly on metadata quality and on the selected database, which could introduce linguistic or geographic biases. In RStudiobased tools, inconsistencies in author names, affiliations and keywords required extensive preprocessing and could propagate errors throughout the analysis. In VOSviewer, network formation was highly sensitive to threshold selection and could oversimplify complex relationships among documents, while large datasets often led to overloaded visualizations that reduced interpretability. Despite these constraints, the analysis enabled the identification of thematic clusters and research patterns consistent with the study’s objectives, and highlighted the significant potential of pyrolysis as a technological pathway for energy recovery and for the management of municipal solid waste.
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1Discente do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química do Instituto Militar de Engenharia, (PPGQ/IME) e-mail: ana.oliveira@ime.eb.br
2Docente do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química do Instituto Militar de Engenharia. Doutor em Engenharia Química, e-mail: luiz@ime.eb.br